Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Examining the Acute Effects of Hatha Yoga and Mindfulness Meditation on Executive Function and Mood

  • ORIGINAL PAPER
  • Published:
Mindfulness Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The objective of this study was to compare the acute effects of hatha yoga and mindfulness meditation on executive function and mood. Using a within-subjects experimental design, 31 moderately experienced hatha yoga practitioners (mean age 27.71 ± 8.32) completed three counterbalanced sessions: hatha yoga (conscious movement and meditation), meditation (mindfulness of breath, emotions, thoughts, and body sensations), and a reading control task. Executive function was assessed using the Stroop task at baseline and at two follow-up points (5 and 10 min post-session). Self-reported mood was measured using the Profile of Mood States (POMS) at baseline and immediately following each session. Findings indicated that hatha yoga (p = .002) and meditation (p = .044) both resulted in significantly improved Stroop performance, though the two conditions did not differ significantly from each other (p = .728). The cognitive benefits in both cases were evident at the 10-min post-session delay but not at the 5-min post-session delay. With respect to mood outcomes, hatha yoga (p < .001) and meditation (p = .050) both resulted in significantly improved POMS total mood scores. Hatha yoga and meditation did not differ significantly from each other in regard to POMS total mood (p = .079), though hatha yoga showed significantly greater benefits on the vigor-activity subscale (p = .006). Overall, findings suggest that acute bouts of hatha yoga and mindfulness meditation benefit executive function and mood to a similar degree.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bryant, E. F. (2009). The yoga sutras of Patañjali: a new edition, translation, and commentary. New York, NY: North Point Press.

  • Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: a proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canadian Society of Exercise Physiologists. PAR-Q Forms (2002). Retrieved from http://www.csep.ca/CMFiles/publications/parq/par-q.pdf .

  • Chang, Y. K., Labban, J. D., Gapin, J. I., & Etnier, J. L. (2012). The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis. Brain Research, 1453, 87–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiesa, A., Calati, R., & Serretti, A. (2011). Does mindfulness training improve cognitive abilities? A systematic review of neuropsychological findings. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(3), 449–464.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chong, C. S. M., Tsunaka, M., Tsang, H. W. H., Chan, E. P., & Cheung, W. M. (2011). Effects of yoga on stress management in health adults: a systematic review. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 17(1), 32–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, T. C., Black, L. I., Stussman, B. J., Barnes, P. M., & Nahin, R. L. (2015). Trends in the use of complementary health approaches among adults: United States, 2002–2012. National Health Statistics Reports, 79, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Langhorst, J., & Dobos, G. (2013). Yoga for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Depression and Anxiety, 30, 1068–1083.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cramer, H., Ward, L., Steel, A., Lauche, R., Dobos, G., & Zhang, Y. (2016). Prevalence, patterns, and predictors of yoga use: results of a U.S. nationally representative survey. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 50(2), 230–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Etnier, J. L., & Chang, Y. K. (2009). The effect of physical activity on executive function: a brief commentary on definitions, measurement issues, and the current state of the literature. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(4), 469–483.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: attentional control theory. Emotion, 7(2), 336–353.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fjorback, L. O., Arendt, M., Ørnbøl, E., Fink, P., & Walach, H. (2011). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy—a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 124(2), 102–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friese, M., Messner, C., & Schaffner, Y. (2012). Mindfulness meditation counteracts self-control depletion. Consciousness and Cognition, 21(2), 1016–1022.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Froeliger, B. E., Garland, E. L., Modlin, L. A., & McClernon, F. J. (2012). Neurocognitive correlates of the effects of yoga and meditation practise on emotion and cognition: a pilot study. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 6(48), 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gothe, N., Pontifex, M. B., Hillman, C., & McAuley, E. (2013). The acute effects of yoga on executive function. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 10(4), 488–495.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harte, J. L., Eifert, G. H., & Smith, R. (1995). The effects of running and meditation on beta-endorphin, corticotropin-releasing hormone and cortisol in plasma, and on mood. Biological Psychology, 40, 251–265.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heuchert, J. P., & McNair, D. M. (2014). Profile of mood states second edition. Journal of Psychological Assessment, 32(3), 273–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 8(2), 169–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Homack, S., & Riccio, C. A. (2004). A meta-analysis of the sensitivity and specificity of the Stroop Color and Word Test with children. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19(6), 725–743.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, S., Gur, R. M., David, Z., & Currier, E. (2015). One-session mindfulness meditation: a randomized controlled study of effects on cognition and mood. Mindfulness, 6(1), 88–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keng, S. L., Smoski, M. J., & Robins, C. J. (2011). Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: a review of empirical studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(6), 1041–1056.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkwood, G., Rampes, H., Tuffrey, V., Richardson, J., & Pilkington, K. (2005). Yoga for anxiety: a systematic review of the research evidence. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(12), 884–891.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lavey, R., Sherman, T., Mueser, K. T., Osborne, D. D., Currier, M., & Wolfe, R. (2005). The effects of yoga on mood in psychiatric inpatients. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 28(4), 399–402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, K. Y., Hu, Y. T., Chang, K. J., Lin, H. F., & Tsauo, J. Y. (2011). Effects of yoga on psychological health, quality of life, and physical health of patients with cancer: a meta-analysis. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2011, 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luu, K., & Hall, P. A. (2016). Hatha yoga and executive function: a systematic review. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 22(2), 125–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNair, D. M., Lorr, M., & Droppleman, L. F. (1992). Revised manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Services.

  • Melville, G. W., Chang, D., Colagiuri, B., Marshall, P. W., & Cheema, B. S. (2012). Fifteen minutes of chair-based yoga postures or guided meditation performed in the office can elicit a relaxation response. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2012, 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(1), 8–14.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex frontal lobe tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(10), 49–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, A., & Malinowski, P. (2009). Meditation, mindfulness and cognitive flexibility. Consciousness and Cognition, 18(1), 176–186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muktibodhananda, S. (2012). Hatha Yoga Pradipika. New Delhi, IN: Sri Satguru Publications.

  • Nangia, D., & Malhotra, R. (2012). Yoga, cognition and mental health. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 38(2), 262–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raffone, A., & Srinivasan, N. (2010). The exploration of meditation in the neuroscience of attention and consciousness. Cognitive Processing, 11(1), 1–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, C. J., Ivanoff, A. M., & Linehan, M. M. (2001). Dialectical behavior therapy. In W. J. Livesley (Ed.), Handbook of personality disorders: theory, research, and treatment (pp. 437–459). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rocha, K. K., Ribeiro, A. M., Rocha, K. C., Sousa, M. B., Albuquerque, F. S., Ribeiro, S., & Silva, R. H. (2012). Improvement in physiological and psychological parameters after 6 months of yoga practice. Consciousness and Cognition, 21(2), 843–850.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Samuelson, M., Carmody, J., Kabat-Zinn, J., & Bratt, M. A. (2007). Mindfulness-based stress reduction in Massachusetts correctional facilities. The Prison Journal, 87(2), 254–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandroff, B. M., Hillman, C. H., Benedict, R. H., & Motl, R. W. (2015). Acute effects of walking, cycling, and yoga exercise on cognition in persons with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis without impaired cognitive processing speed. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37(2), 209–219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saper, R. B., Eisenberg, D. M., Davis, R. B., Culpepper, L., & Phillips, R. S. (2004). Prevalence and patterns of adult yoga use in the United States: results of a national survey. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 10(2), 44–49.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shelov, D. V., Suchday, S., & Friedberg, J. P. (2009). A pilot study measuring the impact of yoga on the trait of mindfulness. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 37(5), 595–598.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stroop, J. R. (1992). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 121(1), 15–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Streeter, C. C., Gerbarg, P. L., Saper, R. B., Ciraulo, D. A., & Brown, R. P. (2012). Effects of yoga on the autonomic nervous system, gamma-aminobutyric-acid, and allostasis in epilepsy, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Medical Hypothesis, 78(5), 571–579.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stuss, D. T. (2011). Functions of the frontal lobes: relation to executive functions. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(6), 759–765.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, Y. Y., Holzel, B. K., & Posner, M. I. (2015). The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16, 213–225.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Telles, S., Singh, N., & Balkrishna, A. (2012). Managing mental health disorders resulting from trauma through yoga: a review. Depression Research and Treatment, 2012, 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wenk-Sormaz, H. (2005). Meditation can reduce habitual responding. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 11(2), 42–58.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • West, J., Otte, C., Geher, K., Johnson, J., & Mohr, D. C. (2004). Effects of hatha yoga and African dance on perceived stress, affect, and salivary cortisol. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 28(2), 114–118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wostmann, N. M., Aichert, D. S., Costa, A., Rubia, K., Moller, H. J., & Ettinger, U. (2013). Reliability and plasticity of response inhibition and interference control. Brain and Cognition, 81(1), 82–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank University of Waterloo Applied Health Science faculty members Dr. John Mielke and Dr. Richard Staines, for their valuable inputs to the project design; Prevention Neuroscience Laboratory members Cassandra Lowe, Fahd Munir, and Petar Grkinic for their assistance in data collection; and yoga studios Moksha Yoga Waterloo and Queen Street Yoga for their valued support in the recruitment process.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Public Health and Health Systems, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

    Kimberley Luu & Peter A. Hall

  2. Department of Kinesiology, University of Waterloo, BMH 1013, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada

    Peter A. Hall

Authors
  1. Kimberley Luu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Peter A. Hall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kimberley Luu.

Ethics declarations

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Office of Research Ethics at the University of Waterloo and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Electronic Supplementary Material

ESM 1

(DOCX 14 kb)

ESM 2

(DOCX 27 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Luu, K., Hall, P.A. Examining the Acute Effects of Hatha Yoga and Mindfulness Meditation on Executive Function and Mood. Mindfulness 8, 873–880 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0661-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0661-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation